REFLECTIONS ON GAGNE’S EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

REFLECTIONS ON GAGNE’S EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

The following are some blog excerps I came across discussing the pros and cons of Gagne’s Events of Instruction.

Donald Clark says:
Banal and dull
First, much of this is banal – get their attention, elicit performance, give feedback, assess. It’s also an instructional ladder that leads straight to Dullsville, a straightjacket that strips away any sense of build and wonder, almost guaranteed to bore more than enlighten. What other form of presentation would give the game away at the start. Would you go to the cinema and expect to hear the objectives of the film before you start? It’s time we moved on from this old and now dated theory using what we’ve learnt about the brain and the clever use of media.



Geetha Krishnan said...
Great post, Don! My first response was "Ouch, That hurt!" I wonder: Is the problem with the commandments themselves? Or is it with the way instructional designers treat them as one more set of check boxes to be ticked away in the design process?

May be it is worthwhile to rephrase / modify the commandments in view of today's media and today's learners?

Mark Frank said...
Uhm

Seems to me that you are blaming Gagne because designers either miss out of some of the steps or do them poorly. Most of the commandments look like pretty good practice to me. You just need to do them well. 


Donald Clark said...
Two good points.

Geetha's point about modifying the nine steps has virtues but I suspect new theory has taken us well beyond these steps into much more media savvy territory. It would be better to focus on what we now know about memory, cognitive overload and how screen-based media actually works, than outdated instructional theory.

Mark - your take is fine. I'm not blaming Gagne personally. I do think his method is primitive and states the obvious, that's why it's easy to defend as 'good practice'. The blame is clearly on those 'instructional design' and 'train the trainer' courses which are full of old, non-empirical theory - Bloom, Gagne, Learning Styles, Kirkpatrick etc. Unfortunately, for gagne and otehrs, these steps are seen as a sequential ladder and the oder can't be shifted around. Designers don't really apply games techniques in their instructional designs, yet games designers have much to teach us on motivation, reinforcement, paced and personalised learning. My point is that his list mostly leads to bad, and not good, practice. The 'Gagne'led instructional designers I've worked with lacked creativity and a communication skills - they dumbed down content.

Clive Shepherd said...
As you suggest, Gagne's 'commandments' do seem rather restrictive and old-fashioned. I think that's because they envision only one over-arching teaching/learning strategy, i.e. structured instruction. Much classroom training and the majority of self-study e-learning falls into this category, more because it's a default option, than because it has been consciously chosen. I believe structured instruction has a role to play, particularly with more dependent learners and where the outcomes have to be clearly demonstrated. Most of Gagne's commandments seem well suited to this approach, although not necessarily in this strict order. As others have commented already, it isn't enough for the guidelines to be followed, they have to be executed well (and that requires real communication skills and some imagination).

But, of course, there are other srategies, including simple exposition, guided discovery and exploration/collaboration in an informal setting.

It seems that, yet again, I am the championing the cause of not throwing out the baby with the bath water. So often, good ideas are let down by poor implementation.


Clark Quinn said...
The interpretation of Gagne' is wrong, but as Donald points out, you also don't need to follow the order. For instance, the practice problem itself can be the attention getter (as in games). I'll immodestly point to my book Engaging Learning as a treatise on how to design learning that actually accomplishes Gagne's goals in a radically different way. And the principles apply even when you don't have the resources for a full game engine.
The point is, the original principles behind the nine elements are right, but not necessarily the order, and certainly not most interpretations of them.

Mike Maroney said...
Having worked at Epic when Donald was CEO can I just say that designers also felt constrained by certain things – the biggest being that clients never wanted to spend the money that would enable us to implement any design that had the slightest chance of being engaging. My favorite being a client who wanted a cutting edge game design – for £25,000! The need to keep costs down to remain competitive always impacted the design. It’s only going to change when e-learning isn’t seen as a short term cheap option.

Anonymous said...
Interesting points. It's always useful to understand the context within which these theories are created. In Gagne's case,that context was military performance and training. 



Donald Clark said...
Note that this was one of the few White Papers I did not write at Epic. There were up to 200 people working at Epic and a few were traditional Gagne types - they tended to be the duller, functional designers. The talented designers, in my experience, regarded all the Gagne stuff as irrelevant. We learnt to keep the 'Gagne' people away from the innovative projects.

ROBERT GAGNE

ROBERT GAGNE
1916-2002
"Learning is something that takes place inside
a person's head- in the brain"
Robert Mills Gagné (born 1916) was an American educator whose studies of learning and instruction profoundly affected American schooling.
Robert Mills Gagné was born August 21, 1916, in North Andover, Massachusetts. He earned an A.B. degree from Yale in 1937 and a Ph.D. from Brown University in 1940. He was a professor of psychology and educational psychology at Connecticut College for Women (1940-1949), Pennsylvania State University (1945-1946), Princeton (1958-1962), and the University of California at Berkeley (1966-1969) and was a professor in the Department of Educational Research at Florida State University in Tallahassee starting in 1969. Gagné also served as a research director for the Air Force (1949-1958) at Lackland, Texas, and Lowry, Colorado. He was employed as a consultant to the Department of Defense (1958-1961) and to the United States Office of Education (1964-1966).

In addition, he served as a director of research at the American Institute of Research in Pittsburgh (1962-1965).
Gagné's work had a profound influence on American education and on military and industrial training. Gagné and L.J. Briggs were among the early developers of the concept of instructional systems design which suggests that all components of a lesson or a period of instruction can be analyzed and that all components can be designed to operate together as an integrated plan for instruction. In a significant article titled "Educational Technology and the Learning Process" (Educational Researcher, 1974), Gagné defined instruction as "the set of planned external events which influence the process of learning and thus promote learning."
Gagné was also well-known for his sophisticated stimulus-response theory of eight kinds of learning which differ in the quality and quantity of stimulus-response bonds involved. From the simplest to the most complex, these are: signal learning (Pavlovian conditioning), stimulus-response learning (operant conditioning), chaining (complex operant conditioning), verbal association, discrimination learning, concept learning, rule learning, and problem solving.
Gagné argued that many skills may be analyzed into a hierarchy of behaviors, called a learning hierarchy. An instructor would develop a learning hierarchy for something to be taught by stating the skill to be learned as a specific behavior and then asking and answering the question "What would you have to know how to do in order to perform this task, after being given only instructions"" Gagné tested the concept of learning hierarchies in studies, mainly using simple arithmetic skills. His findings tended to support the notion of learning hierarchies and indicated that individuals rarely learn a higher skill without already knowing the lower skill.
Gagné's approach to learning and instruction, especially the instructional systems design approach, was sometimes criticized as most appropriate for mastery learning of information and intellectual skill objectives, but less suited for attitude and cognitive strategy outcomes. Undoubtedly, Gagné's work had a tremendous impact on thinking and theories in educational circles. His hierarchical theory of prerequisite steps in learning had many implications for the sequencing of instruction, and many feel it contributed to the development of a more scientific approach to instruction. In the field of English, for example, it allowed teachers to break English language skills into successively simple components and to teach the components in an orderly sequence, reinforcing correct responses along the way. Gagné's focus on systematic precise instructions also helped to lay the groundwork for individualized instruction and school accountability in American society.

GAGNE'S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

GAGNE'S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Instruction is like Fine Dining: we don’t want the check before we see the menu!

Questions . . . questions, anyone?” Professor Brown asks while busily placing notes on the chalkboard. Silence. He turns to look at the class and discovers a sea of glassy-eyed faces. An occasional yawn breaks the silence. A few students bolt upright at their desks when Professor Brown announces, “Class, there will be a TEST on this information tomorrow.” Professor Brown returns to the chalkboard, disappointed that his students do not share his enthusiasm for the day’s lesson. 

All of us, at some time, have felt like Professor Brown. Despite our meticulous planning, our students do not seem engaged. The students, meanwhile, are wondering what will be on the test and what they should study. They are frustrated by a wealth of information and a lack of direction. They may feel as though they have been handed the check before seeing the menu in a restaurant.

One way to effectively manage our classroom presentations is to borrow from the principles of instructional design theory. Perhaps Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction will help us to create dynamic, well organized, and student-centered experiences in class. Dr. Robert Gagne, who is currently a professor at Florida State University, is one of the leaders in the field of Instructional Design, and his 9 Events of Instruction is a highly cited instructional model. Although Gagne first presented the 9 Events of Instruction in the 1965 publication The Conditions of Learning, the model is just as helpful to instructors today as it was over thirty years ago. Gagne’s 9 Events of Instruction can be broken into three phases: the pre-instructional phase (which we will call the appetizers), the instructional phase (which we will call the meat and potatoes), and the post-instructional phase (which we will call dessert).

The pre-instructional phase is all about preparing the student for new learning. We are whetting the appetite, so to speak. We want to gain attention, motivate, and stimulate recall of prior relevant knowledge and skills.We can think of this phase as emphasizing “what we know, what we want or need to know, and why we need to know this information anyway.” In the instructional phase, we introduce new information, concepts, or skills to be mastered—the “meat and potatoes” of the lesson. The goal here is to present information in clear, concise chunks; to highlight key information, relationships, and study aids; and to provide sufficient practice and feedback opportunities for students. The post-instructional phase can be thought of as the “dessert.” It is a debriefing that provides closure to the lesson. In this phase, we summarize the learning that has occurred and provide connections to other subject areas or events in order to promote retention and transfer of new knowledge or skills.

By keeping Gagne’s 9 Events in mind as we plan our classroom activities, we purposefully create an effective beginning, middle, and end to each instructional module. We whet student appetites for learning in the beginning by gaining attention and boosting motivation while stimulating recall of prior knowledge. In the middle, we provide the “meat and potatoes” of instruction. Learner anxiety is lessened as expectations are made clear and feedback on performance is provided. And in the end, students are treated to “dessert.” They can verbalize or demonstrate what they have learned and they feel the satisfaction of accomplishment and closure. Now that makes for a NICE tip!
Pre-Instructional Phase


(Appetizers) 1. Gain Attention

* Begin the lesson with a question or conflict.
* Begin the lesson with a demonstration or experiment.
* Use humor, vary media, get students involved

2. Inform Learners of the Objectives * Review course objectives that are relevant to the lesson.
* Explain how meeting the objectives is useful to the. student in terms of real-world applications

3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning * Pre-test prior knowledge and prerequisite skills.
* Ask students to share their current perceptions of the topic.
* Create a concept map of prior knowledge

Instructional Phase

(Meat and Potatoes) 4. Present the Stimulus
* Lecture in small chunks whenever possible.
* Use a variety of media and methods in presenting information.
* Show examples and non-examples to clarify concepts

5. Provide Learner Guidance * Highlight important ideas, concepts, or rules.
* Use repetition.
* Provide students with learning strategies such as pneumonic memory aids

6. Elicit Student Performance * Allow for several practice sessions over a period of time.
* Provide role-play, case studies, or simulations

7. Provide Feedback * Feedback should be immediate, specific, and corrective.
* Allow additional practice opportunities after feedback is given.

Post-Instructional Phase 8. Assess Performance * Provide independent activities that test student knowledge/skill acquisition

(Dessert) 9. Enhance Retention and Transfer * Apply learning in real-world scenarios.
* Highlight connections with other subject areas or events.








 




CONDITIONS OF LEARNING-ROBERT GAGNE

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING-ROBERT GAGNE

Overview:
This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that each different type requires different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments.
Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response generation, procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule application, and problem solving. The primary significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level. Prerequisites are identified by doing a task analysis of a learning/training task. Learning hierarchies provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction.
In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:
(1) gaining attention (reception) 
(2) informing learners of the objective (expectancy) 
(3) stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) 
(4) presenting the stimulus (selective perception) 
(5) providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) 
(6) eliciting performance (responding) 
(7) providing feedback (reinforcement) 
(8) assessing performance (retrieval) 
(9) enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).
Scope/Application:
While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.
Example:
The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:
1. Gain attention - show variety of computer generated triangles 
2. Identify objective - pose question: "What is an equilateral triangle?" 
3. Recall prior learning - review definitions of triangles 
4. Present stimulus - give definition of equilateral triangle 
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral 
6. Elicit per formance - ask students to create 5 different examples 
7. Provide feedback - check all examples as correct/incorrect 
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation 
9. Enhance retention/transfer - show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals
Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.
Principles:
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.
2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction.

Gagne's events of instruction

GAGNE'S EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION

Gagne's Nine Events of Instruction
Gagne's book, The Conditions of Learning, first published in 1965, identified the mental conditions for learning. These were based on the information processing model of the mental events that occur when adults are presented with various stimuli. Gagne created a nine-step process called the events of instruction, which correlate to and address the conditions of learning. The figure below shows these instructional events in the left column and the associated mental processes in the right column.
Instructional Event Internal Mental Process
1. Gain attention Stimuli activates receptors
2. Inform learners of objectives Creates level of expectation for learning
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning Retrieval and activation of short-term memory
4. Present the content Selective perception of content
5. Provide "learning guidance" Semantic encoding for storage long-term memory
6. Elicit performance (practice) Responds to questions to enhance encoding and verification
7. Provide feedback Reinforcement and assessment of correct performance
8. Assess performance Retrieval and reinforcement of content as final evaluation
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job Retrieval and generalization of learned skill to new situation
0. Gain attention
0. In order for any learning to take place, you must first capture the attention of the student. A multimedia program that begins with an animated title screen sequence accompanied by sound effects or music startles the senses with auditory or visual stimuli. An even better way to capture students' attention is to start each lesson with a thought-provoking question or interesting fact. Curiosity motivates students to learn.
0. Inform learners of objectives
0. Early in each lesson students should encounter a list of learning objectives. This initiates the internal process of expectancy and helps motivate the learner to complete the lesson. These objectives should form the basis for assessment and possible certification as well. Typically, learning objectives are presented in the form of "Upon completing this lesson you will be able to. . . ." The phrasing of the objectives themselves will be covered under Robert Mager's contributions later in this chapter.
0. Stimulate recall of prior learning
0. Associating new information with prior knowledge can facilitate the learning process. It is easier for learners to encode and store information in long-term memory when there are links to personal experience and knowledge. A simple way to stimulate recall is to ask questions about previous experiences, an understanding of previous concepts, or a body of content.
0. Present the content
0. This event of instruction is where the new content is actually presented to the learner. Content should be chunked and organized meaningfully, and typically is explained and then demonstrated. To appeal to different learning modalities, a variety of media should be used if possible, including text, graphics, audio narration, and video.
0. Provide "learning guidance"
0. To help learners encode information for long-term storage, additional guidance should be provided along with the presentation of new content. Guidance strategies include the use of examples, non-examples, case studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies.
0. Elicit performance (practice)
0. In this event of instruction, the learner is required to practice the new skill or behavior. Eliciting performance provides an opportunity for learners to confirm their correct understanding, and the repetition further increases the likelihood of retention.
0. Provide feedback
0. As learners practice new behavior it is important to provide specific and immediate feedback of their performance. Unlike questions in a post-test, exercises within tutorials should be used for comprehension and encoding purposes, not for formal scoring. Additional guidance and answers provided at this stage are called formative feedback.
0. Assess performance
0. Upon completing instructional modules, students should be given the opportunity to take (or be required to take) a post-test or final assessment. This assessment should be completed without the ability to receive additional coaching, feedback, or hints. Mastery of material, or certification, is typically granted after achieving a certain score or percent correct. A commonly accepted level of mastery is 80% to 90% correct.
0. Enhance retention and transfer to the job
Determining whether or not the skills learned from a training program are ever applied back on the job often remains a mystery to training managers - and a source of consternation for senior executives. Effective training programs have a "performance" focus, incorporating design and media that facilitate retention and transfer to the job. The repetition of learned concepts is a tried and true means of aiding retention, although often disliked by students. (There was a reason for writing spelling words ten times as grade school student.) Creating electronic or online job-aids, references, templates, and wizards are other ways of aiding performance.
Applying Gagne's nine-step model to any training program is the single best way to ensure an effective learning program. A multimedia program that is filled with glitz or that provides unlimited access to Web-based documents is no substitute for sound instructional design. While those types of programs might entertain or be valuable as references, they will not maximize the effectiveness of information processing - and learning will not occur.
How to Apply Gagne's Events of Instruction in e-Learning
As an example of how to apply Gagne's events of instruction to an actual training program, let's look at a high-level treatment for a fictitious software training program. We'll assume that we need to develop a CD-ROM tutorial to teach sales representatives how to use a new lead-tracking system called STAR, which runs on their laptop computers.
1. Gain attention
The program starts with an engaging opening sequence. A space theme is used to play off the new software product's name, STAR. Inspirational music accompanies the opening sequence, which might consist of a shooting star or animated logo. When students access the first lesson, the vice president of sales appears on the screen in a video clip and introduces the course. She explains how important it is to stay on the cutting edge of technology and how the training program will teach them to use the new STAR system. She also emphasizes the benefits of the STAR system, which include reducing the amount of time representatives need to spend on paperwork.
2. Inform learners of objectives
The VP of sales presents students with the following learning objectives immediately after the introduction.
Upon completing this lesson you will be able to:
0. List the benefits of the new STAR system.
0. Start and exit the program.
0. Generate lead-tracking reports by date, geography, and source.
0. Print paper copies of all reports.
3. Stimulate recall of prior learning
0. Students are called upon to use their prior knowledge of other software applications to understand the basic functionality of the STAR system. They are asked to think about how they start, close, and print from other programs such as their word processor, and it is explained that the STAR system works similarly. Representatives are asked to reflect on the process of the old lead-tracking system and compare it to the process of the new electronic one.
4. Present the content
0. Using screen images captured from the live application software and audio narration, the training program describes the basic features of the STAR system. After the description, a simple demonstration is performed.
5. Provide "learning guidance"
0. With each STAR feature, students are shown a variety of ways to access it - using short-cut keys on the keyboard, drop-down menus, and button bars. Complex sequences are chunked into short, step-by-step lists for easier storage in long-term memory.
6. Elicit performance (practice)
0. After each function is demonstrated, students are asked to practice with realistic, controlled simulations. For example, students might be asked to "Generate a report that shows all active leads in the state of New Jersey." Students are required to use the mouse to click on the correct on-screen buttons and options to generate the report.
7. Provide feedback
0. During the simulations, students are given guidance as needed. If they are performing operations correctly, the simulated STAR system behaves just as the live application would. If the student makes a mistake, the tutorial immediately responds with an audible cue, and a pop-up window explains and reinforces the correct operation.
8. Assess performance
0. After all lessons are completed, students are required to take a post-test. Mastery is achieved with an 80% or better score, and once obtained, the training program displays a completion certificate, which can be printed. The assessment questions are directly tied to the learning objectives displayed in the lessons.
9. Enhance retention and transfer to the job
While the STAR system is relatively easy to use, additional steps are taken to ensure successful implementation and widespread use among the sales force. These features include online help and "wizards", which are step-by-step instructions on completing complex tasks. Additionally, the training program is equipped with a content map, an index of topics, and a search function. These enable students to use the training as a just-in-time support tool in the future. Finally, a one-page, laminated quick reference card is packaged with the training CD-ROM for further reinforcement of the learning session.

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You are here: Home > School education > Policy, initiatives & reviews > National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century
The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century - Preamble and Goals

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Preamble
Goals

The State, Territory and Australian Government Ministers of Education met as the 10th Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) in Adelaide, 22-23 April 1999, chaired by the Minister for Education, Children's Services and Training in South Australia, the Hon Malcolm Buckby MP. Conscious that the schooling of Australia's children is the foundation on which to build our future as a nation, Council agreed to act jointly to assist Australian schools in meeting the challenges of our times. In reaching agreement to address the following areas of common concern, the State, Territory and Australian Government Ministers of Education made an historic commitment to improving Australian Schooling within a framework of national collaboration.

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Preamble

Australia’s future depends upon each citizen having the necessary knowledge, understanding, skills and values for a productive and rewarding life in an educated, just and open society. High quality schooling is central to achieving this vision.

This statement of national goals for schooling provides broad directions to guide schools and education authorities in securing these outcomes for students.

It acknowledges the capacity of all young people to learn, and the role of schooling in developing that capacity. It also acknowledges the role of parents as the first educators of their children and the central role of teachers in the learning process.

Schooling provides a foundation for young Australians’ intellectual, physical, social, moral, spiritual and aesthetic development. By providing a supportive and nurturing environment, schooling contributes to the development of students’ sense of self-worth, enthusiasm for learning and optimism for the future.

Governments set the public policies that foster the pursuit of excellence, enable a diverse range of educational choices and aspirations, safeguard the entitlement of all young people to high quality schooling, promote the economic use of public resources, and uphold the contribution of schooling to a socially cohesive and culturally rich society.

Common and agreed goals for schooling establish a foundation for action among State and Territory governments with their constitutional responsibility for schooling, the Australian Government, non-government school authorities and all those who seek the best possible educational outcomes for young Australians, to improve the quality of schooling nationally .

The achievement of these common and agreed national goals entails a commitment to collaboration for the purposes of:

further strengthening schools as learning communities where teachers, students and their families work in partnership with business, industry and the wider community
enhancing the status and quality of the teaching profession
continuing to develop curriculum and related systems of assessment, accreditation and credentialing that promote quality and are nationally recognised and valued
increasing public confidence in school education through explicit and defensible standards that guide improvement in students’ levels of educational achievement and through which the effectiveness, efficiency and equity of schooling can be measured and evaluated.
These national goals provide a basis for investment in schooling to enable all young people to engage effectively with an increasingly complex world. This world will be characterised by advances in information and communication technologies, population diversity arising from international mobility and migration, and complex environmental and social challenges.

The achievement of the national goals for schooling will assist young people to contribute to Australia’s social, cultural and economic development in local and global contexts. Their achievement will also assist young people to develop a disposition towards learning throughout their lives so that they can exercise their rights and responsibilities as citizens of Australia.

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Goals

1. Schooling should develop fully the talents and capacities of all students. In particular, when students leave school, they should:
1.1 have the capacity for, and skills in, analysis and problem solving and the ability to communicate ideas and information, to plan and organise activities, and to collaborate with others.
1.2 have qualities of self-confidence, optimism, high self-esteem, and a commitment to personal excellence as a basis for their potential life roles as family, community and workforce members.
1.3 have the capacity to exercise judgement and responsibility in matters of morality, ethics and social justice, and the capacity to make sense of their world, to think about how things got to be the way they are, to make rational and informed decisions about their own lives, and to accept responsibility for their own actions.
1.4 be active and informed citizens with an understanding and appreciation of Australia’s system of government and civic life.
1.5 have employment related skills and an understanding of the work environment, career options and pathways as a foundation for, and positive attitudes towards, vocational education and training, further education, employment and life-long learning.
1.6 be confident, creative and productive users of new technologies, particularly information and communication technologies, and understand the impact of those technologies on society.
1.7 have an understanding of, and concern for, stewardship of the natural environment, and the knowledge and skills to contribute to ecologically sustainable development.
1.8 have the knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary to establish and maintain a healthy lifestyle, and for the creative and satisfying use of leisure time.
2. In terms of curriculum, students should have:
2.1 attained high standards of knowledge, skills and understanding through a comprehensive and balanced curriculum in the compulsory years of schooling encompassing the agreed eight key learning areas:
the arts;
English;
health and physical education;
languages other than English;
mathematics;
science;
studies of society and environment; and
technology.
and the interrelationships between them.

2.2 attained the skills of numeracy and English literacy; such that, every student should be numerate, able to read, write, spell and communicate at an appropriate level.
2.3 participated in programs of vocational learning during the compulsory years and have had access to vocational education and training programs as part of their senior secondary studies.
2.4 participated in programs and activities which foster and develop enterprise skills, including those skills which will allow them maximum flexibility and adaptability in the future.
3. Schooling should be socially just, so that:
3.1 students’ outcomes from schooling are free from the effects of negative forms of discrimination based on sex, language, culture and ethnicity, religion or disability; and of differences arising from students’ socio-economic background or geographic location.
3.2 the learning outcomes of educationally disadvantaged students improve and, over time, match those of other students.
3.3 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students have equitable access to, and opportunities in, schooling so that their learning outcomes improve and, over time, match those of other students.
3.4 all students understand and acknowledge the value of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures to Australian society and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians.
3.5 all students understand and acknowledge the value of cultural and linguistic diversity, and possess the knowledge, skills and understanding to contribute to, and benefit from, such diversity in the Australian community and internationally.
3.6 all students have access to the high quality education necessary to enable the completion of school education to Year 12 or its vocational equivalent and that provides clear and recognised pathways to employment and further education and training.
More information about the work of MCEETYA in relation to the National Goals for Schooling, the measurement of student performance and the National Report on Schooling in Australia can be found on the MCEETYA website.




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Final Exam ED 1120

Exam Questions
QUESTION 1

List and evaluate in order of importance, the qualities you would like to have as a teacher. In your answer, make reference to:
Personal characteristics;
Use of teaching and learning theory;
Relationships with students and colleagues;
A critical reflective orientation.


EXPERT TEACHERS
1) Know subject
2) Experts at learning through guiding classroom interactions
3) Monitoring Individual Learning and providing feedback
4) Attend to heart feelings, emotions of children and interact with them letting them know that you care.
5) Influence outcomes – make students learn.

Hattie sees an expert teacher as having the following characteristics:
• Willingness to learn
• Persistence
• Maturity
• Sensitivity
• Sociability
• Determination/ Commitment
• Reliability
• Teamwork
• Imagination
• Initiative


I would like all the above qualities and more!
I would regard the most important quality I could possess as a teacher is a love of “The Divine” in all things and trust in the ever present help of the spiritual world. Everything begins and ends with “The Creator” and I recognise that we are all connected to the divine and as such we are all powerful instruments of creativity and inspiration. A love of “The Divine” leads one to a love of the world. As a teacher I endeavour to take an interest in all that comes to me from the world and maintain an open heart and mind to new and different ways of thinking, feeling and acting. A love of the world and humanity leads me to a special love of children.
I regard the life of each child as precious and “ DO NO HARM is a motto that I have always taken seriously so I must start by stating my initial reactions to educational theory. From my first “meeting with Steiner” I was impressed by both the gravity and truth of Steiners assertion that TOO EARLY AN EDUCATION WOULD LEAD TO EARLY BRAIN DEATH and while this may seem a dramatic place to start, it seems to have been born out in the increase in prevalence and in the decrease in age of people suffering from DEMENTIA. So when I see educational theories which do not have this philosophical base I return to the motto. In particular, the emphasis on technologically based educational tools at very early ages seems hard to comprehend.
Another major quality is a love of “the work” which becomes “love made visible”. A love and passion for learning is infectious for students and colleagues.
As a teacher I understand that all students are different and have many and varied gifts and talents. Every individual has something to contribute to the whole( Gardners Multiple Intelligences). It is my endeavour to accept, respect and celebrate diversity and engage students in activities which foster their individuality and encourage their higher order thinking and learning.
Other qualities that I think are important in my teaching are a sense of humour, a sense of order and beauty in the classroom environment and the ability to build individual relationships. I think it is important to make time available for students to tell me their news and just chat about things that matter to them. These times help to strengthen positive relationships and aid mutual understanding and respect. Also making time for meetings with parents aids communication and learning outcomes. A parent needs to know that you have their childs best interests at heart.
I have always found the support of my colleagues to be important in the collaborative process in order to gain fresh perspectives and insights.
The indications of Rudolf Steiners teaching and learning practice has provided me with a wealth of knowledge and understanding to guide me. The understanding of how children learn through the twelve senses, the four temperaments, the thinking, feeling and willing processes corresponds to the educational theories of Gardeners multiple intelligences and Blooms Taxonomy. The idea of teacher as co-learner, nurturing risk-taking and engaging students in collaborative group activities fosters high-level thinking.
In conclusion the moral guidance of children through their developmental years is the most fundamental principle in teaching. A teacher who can guide the moral development of a child must firstly work on their own moral development. Teaching is a VOCATION!
It does not matter how we view the word vocation, whether in a religious or in a secular sense, a teacher must have it or he/she is possibly in the wrong profession. The qualities of IMAGINATION, INTUITION or INSPIRATION usually set these apart from the rest. One could regard the profession as a destiny path .


QUESTION 2

How do the theories of Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky complement each other to provide the underpinning of the Constructivist Theory of Education.


Piaget is usually quoted in the context of the early development of education theory and these days it is hard to even imagine the social context of his theories. He was writing in a time when children were regarded as little adults. Children were even dressed as little adults. Consequently, a theory which challenged this by saying that children not only learned in different ways but they could not learn some things at the wrong time, was very much flying in the face of practices of the time.
Piaget posited four necessary stages of development and like Steiner before him, spoke of the dire consequences of ignoring these stages and forcing an early or inappropriate education. He believed that everyone passes through in sequence these distinct stages and a person cannot skip or reorder them. Although all normal children go through each stage in exactly the same order, there is some variation in the ages the children may attain each stage. As the child interacts with the world around him and develops, knowledge is invented and reinvented. He believed that intellectual development controlled social, moral and emotional development.
A major part of Piaget’s theory of thinking and learning is that both involve learner participation. Knowledge must be constructed and reconstructed by the learner. The learner is not a vessel to be filled with facts but must be active in the process. Readiness is of paramount importance as children cannot learn something unless their level of maturity has ordained it. Their ability to learn is always related to their stage of intellectual development and if they are at a particular stage they cannot be taught the concepts of a higher stage.
The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).
Another aspect of Vigotsky”s theory is that cognitive development depends on the “zone of proximal development”(ZPD) When children engage in social behavior a level of development is attained. Full development of the ZPD depends on full social interaction. With adult guidance or peer collaboration a range of skills can be developed that far exceeds what may have been achieved alone.
The Constructivist Theory of Education acknowledges that students may put ideas together themselves but their understanding will depend on their prior learning.
These theories complement each other in that Piaget, who after years of observation and reflection, came to the conclusion that the interaction of environmental and hereditary factors resulted in intellectual development.. Vygotskys work became more accessible in the west in the 1980’s and showed a way of reconciling the different ways in which children were regarded, namely as unfolding flowers or empty vessels waiting to be filled. The constructivist model took on these ideas as part of the basis for a system of knowledge acquisition in which the ideas were developed from scratch and in which all of the participants grew in knowledge and understanding.




QUESTION 3

In the use of BOS syllabuses, explain the use of the following documents at school level:
Scope and Sequence
Teaching programme
Assessment programme
Evaluate the part that each of these documents plays in determining what is taught?

“Scope and Sequence is all about the range of teaching content and the order in which it is taught. If you get it right, it will mean that the stages of teaching will flow sequentially from one to the next and skills and knowledge will be taught in a logical order. It endeavors to ensure that students at any particular stage will have the prerequisite skills and knowledge to acquire new skills that are being taught, and will find new challenges as they progress.”
“Scope and sequence is vital in whole school planning and in the planning of learning sequences. Scope includes decisions about what is significant and manageable. Sequence includes decisions about what is necessary for sequential development of both skills and concepts.”

In using the Board of Studies syllabuses at the school level it is important to note that the scope and sequence, teaching programme and assessment programmes are specific to each KLA so it makes more sense to discuss the use of these terms in relation to a specific subject. I have chosen Geography.
The following table gives an overview of material to be covered in year 7 and year 8. When designing a lesson for year 7 Coral Reefs I would refer to the section on Global Environments. The scope of this lesson is indicated as having the outcomes listed as 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4,
4.5, 4.6, 4.10
The sequence is the order in which the lessons will unfold to achieve these outcomes. The order needs to take into account the prior knowledge of the students and to build sequentially upon these prior stages.



Sample Stage 4 Mandatory Scope and Sequence Plan

Students must undertake 100 hours of study in Global Geography (Stage 4). Each of the four mandatory topics is allocated equal time of 25 hours per topic. In a semesterised system, topics 1 and 2 would be taught in Year 7 and topics 3 and 4 in Year 8.

Topic Hours
25 25 25 25
1 Investigating the World Outcomes: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4,
4.5, 4.6, 4.10
2 Global Environments
Outcomes: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4,
4.6, 4.8, 4.10
3 Global Change
Outcomes: 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4,
4.5, 4.7, 4.9, 4.10
4 Global Issues and the Role of Citizenship
Outcomes: 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.7
4.8, 4.9, 4.10

The teaching programme will take into account both the prior knowledge of the students and the age appropriateness of the material to be taught. Examples of appropriateness here would involve discussions of fishing while on a field trip to the “Reef” since the indigenous members of the class may have a different understanding of this issue. Past experience has shown a need to relate this issue to the need to eat what is caught and not engage in wanton destruction.
The assessment program enables teaches to know if the students have gained knowledge and understanding that will enable them to move to further levels of understanding of the subject material.
The following excerpt from the BOS syllabus document shows the necessary outcomes for effective learning and assessment.

When designing assessment activities, teachers should consider whether the activity:
• has explicitly stated purposes that address the outcomes
• is integral to the teaching and learning program
• shows a clear relationship between the outcomes and content being assessed
• allows students to demonstrate the extent of their knowledge, understanding and skills
• focuses on what was taught in class and what students were informed would be assessed
• provides opportunities to gather information about what further teaching and learning is required for students to succeed
• provides valid and reliable evidence of student learning and is fair.


Scope and sequence considerations are integral to planning for the school year and helps teachers to : Promote a spiral curriculum, i.e. teaching programs that help students progress towards the next level of outcomes by building on experiences in previous years.
Avoid unnecessary repetition of content.
Ensure that sensitive areas are taught within the context of a whole school program.
Organise limited time, resources and facilities in the most effective way.
Schools are able to design and make relevant teaching programmes that recognise the individual needs of their students, teachers and the culture and core values of their community using the resources that are available.

Journal

Journal

FIRST – DO NO HARM is a motto that I have always taken seriously so I must start by stating my initial reactions to educational theory. From my first “meeting with Steiner” I was impressed by both the gravity and truth of Steiner’s assertion that TOO EARLY AN EDUCATION WOULD LEAD TO EARLY BRAIN DEATH and while this may seem a dramatic place to start, it seems to have been born out in the increase in prevalence and in the decrease in age of people suffering from DEMENTIA. So when I see educational theories which do not have this philosophical base I return to the motto. In particular, the emphasis on technologically based educational tools at very early ages seems hard to comprehend.

Secondly, I need to reflect on the nature of teaching as a VOCATION.
It does not matter how we view the word vocation, whether in a religious or in a secular sense, a teacher must have it or he/she is possibly in the wrong profession. The qualities of IMAGINATION, INTUITION or INSPIRATION usually set these apart from the rest. One could regard the profession as a destiny path and certainly one knows when one meets someone who is obviously in the correct destiny position. This of course is not unique to teaching, one can easily discern an inspired health care professional from the all too common uninspired one.

I have found great wisdom and truth in using The Cultural Epochs as tools for understanding the stages of Child Development and it has been difficult to balance these against systems of educational theory which neither mention nor acknowledge such stages. Similarly with the Four Temperaments, I have found them to be both true and extremely useful in my understanding of child development.

Within my school environment I would like to mention the Wearable Arts program and its relevance to my Class 7. My entire class of 30 students was involved in some aspect of the program, from dance lessons, choreography, performance, set and costume production, stage construction, stage crew, promotion. The collaborative activities and the individual talents which were exhibited would make any educationalist proud.

High Quality Lesson Structure

Describe a high quality lesson structure that addresses the issues of student motivation

Constructivist education
• student based learning
• prior learning
• descriptive, self critical reflection
Vygotsky social interaction
• student interaction
• awareness of students
• collaborative learning
Gardners Multiple intelligences

• linguistic
• logical/mathematical
• bodily/kinaesthetic
• visual
• musical
• interpersonal
• intrapersonal
• naturalist
Blooms Taxonomy
• analyse
• understand
• create
Glassers Choice Theory
• power
• freedom
• fun
Wheatleys Relationships in Learning
• exploring interpersonal relationships
• understanding the world
• thinkink/working in new ways
Hatties Expert Teaching Principles
• feedback
• prior knowledge
• class environment
• direct instruction
• peer tutoring
• students disposition to learning
• instructional quality
• mastery learning
Board of Studies
• syllabus requirements
Resources
• innovative
• interactive
• stimulating
• creative
Rudolf Steiner
• Developmental stages of childhood
• Four temperaments
• Reflective meditation

The Expert Teacher

What really makes an Expert Teacher

“As a teacher I possess tremendous power to make a child’s life miserable or joyous. I can be a tool of torture or an instrument of inspiration. I can humiliate or humour, hurt or heal. In all situations, it is my response that decides whether a crisis will be escalated or deescalated, and a child humanised or dehumanised.” – Haim Ginott.
See Haim Ginott, Between Teacher and Child (New York: Collier Books, 1995)


EXPERT TEACHERS
1) Know subject
2) Experts at learning through guiding classroom interactions
3) Monitoring Individual Learning and providing feedback
4) Attend to heart feelings,emotions of children and interact with them letting them know that you care.
5) Influence outcomes – make students learn.

Hattie sees an expert teacher as having the following characteristics:
• Willingness to learn
• Persistence
• Maturity
• Sensitivity
• Sociability
• Determination/ Commitment
• Reliability
• Teamwork
• Imagination
• Initiative

Some teachers are 1) liked by principle
2) liked by students
3) liked by colleagues
Students want teachers to:
• Keep order
• Explain clearly
• Show enthusiasm for the subject
• Treat them as individuals
• Have a good sense of humour

Students do not respect teachers who:
• Cannot control them
• Bore them
• Put on an act
• Shout at them
• Are sarcastic
• Are different in class than socially
• Make too much fuss about things that happen
• Belittle them
• Punish unfairly
• Reward unfairly


Personal reflection
In my experience the love of children is the most important quality in becoming an expert teacher. Having said this I also know excellent teachers whose profession is born out of a love of ‘the work’ The moral guidance of children through their developmental years is the most fundamental principle in teaching. A teacher who can guide the moral development of a child must firstly work on their own moral development. Teaching is a VOCATION!
It does not matter how we view the word vocation, whether in a religious or in a secular sense, a teacher must have it or he/she is possibly in the wrong profession. The qualities of IMAGINATION, INTUITION or INSPIRATION usually set these apart from the rest. One could regard the profession as a destiny path and certainly one knows when one meets someone who is obviously in the correct destiny position.

The Creative Learning Community

The Creative Learning Community

1) A Special Place – There are many aspects to creating a special place. Firstly it is important that I centre myself in meditation and bring the children before me. This may need a different place depending on the time of day. At night I need the quiet of my study to reflect upon the needs of each of the children in my care. On rising, the thoughts that I have taken into sleep are fashioned into the realities of lessons that I will bring to the children. On arriving at school I will warm the classroom space both physically and energetically. When the children arrive I will greet them and talk with them. The children are then called to order by reciting a verse (by Rudolf Steiner) with arms folded in a gesture of reverence.

“Quiet I bare within me
I bare within myself, forces to make me strong
Now will I be imbued with their glowing warmth
Now will I fill myself with my own will’s resolve
And I will feel the quiet pouring through all my being
When by my steadfast striving I become strong
To find within myself the source of strength
The strength of inner quiet”

2) Networked Learning Within the creative leaning community there are social mechanisms for networking. Within the parent body there are willing and diversely talented people



3) Community The core values of the particular school will often determine the philosophical slant that is given to lessons and it is essential that all staff members are enabled to understand these core values and modify any personal expressions of their own beliefs when dealing with children. A sense of community can be strengthened by involvement in festivals, plays, sporting events, fund raising, concerts, etc. Communities are complex and delicate organisms and need careful nurturing. The diverse nature of members require special skills by management. Creative pursuits are often the best.


4) Reflection Most often the busy nature of the day can obscure this most important aspect of teaching and indeed of life. It is essential to go back over the day and in particular, the children,s reaction to the lessons and to the myriad social situations. Steiner stressed the importance of doing this meditation in reverse order to gain control of deeper aspects of the mind.


5) Deep Learning Within the creative process deep learning is at the heart of all good education and we as teachers must lead the students towards this through educational situations which enable them to move beyond rote learning by expressing their own creativity and evaluating and analysing their ideas while applying these new found ideas to new situations.


6) Gifts and Talents As we can see in Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences, we need to acknowledge the many different ways in which children learn and the varied talents which they bare. So often the student is expected to learn in a manner which is not suited to them.


7) Power and Function The structure of management is essential to the running of a creative school. Clear direction is essential to prevent fragmentation. Freedom to create and to be entrepreneurial within the guidelines of the community. A strong financial structure supports activities that would normally be risky.

8) Creativity The creativity of the teacher is essential to foster interest in the students and is possibly the most important tool that a teacher can possess. The creativity of the students is enhanced by being involved in creative projects, where diverse talents can be allowed to shine.


9) Transformation of the Individual Through the involvement in creative teaching environments the individual is able to reach new heights of excellence and creativity and is thus transformed rather than being stifled in the yearly repetition of crusty old lessons.


10) Transformation of the Culture of the School A school which fosters a creative environment not only transforms old ways but creates for itself a niche market which if nurtured properly, can become a centre of excellence in a region.

LOVE IS A BLOG

The Science Of Knowing

Rudolf Steiner
Intellect and Reason
Our thinking has a twofold task: firstly, to create concepts with sharply delineated contours; secondly, to bring together the individual concepts thus created into a unified whole. In the first case we are dealing with the activity that makes distinctions; in the second, with the activity that joins. These two spiritual tendencies by no means enjoy the same cultivation in the sciences. The keen intellect that enters into the smallest details in making its distinctions is given to a significantly larger number of people than the uniting power of thinking (reason) that penetrates into the depths of beings.

http://wn.rsarchive.org/Books/GA002/English/MP1988/GA002_c12.html

Steiner makes an important observation in the above article namely that the scientific method of today , as important as it is , is not always capable of viewing a totality because it has become consumed in the parts , all of which may be brilliantly studied in their individual components,but ultimately not re-assembled into a truthful whole. An example is the nature of light as expounded by Newton and Goethe .Newton believing that he had conquered the nature of light by breaking it down to its seven colours , while Goethe preferred to stay within the phenomena of the dance as light meets dark . Einsein had his say on the nature of light by declaring that “these days every rascal thinks he knows what the nature of light is , but he is wrong!”
Perhaps we should take Steiners other thought above more seriously –the uniting power is only given to a few.Steiner also lists the following 12 world outlooks , all of which are needed to form a whole picture of the world.


THE TWELVE WORLD OUTLOOKS
http://wn.rsarchive.org/RelArtic/BobbetteRSW/steineraz_1914.html

Materialism: Sole belief in the crudest impressions, valid for the material world and its laws.

Spiritism: Sole belief that material reality is only illusion and that all genuine reality is found only in the Spirit.

Realism: Sole belief in what can be perceived and thought about as the external world.

Idealism: Sole belief in ideas manifesting through reality and giving it purpose.

Mathematism: Sole belief in the mathematical ordering of reality.

Rationalism: Sole belief in the ideas discovered in external reality.

Psychism: Sole belief in the need for ideas to be embodied in beings to be real.

Pneumatism: Sole belief that beings with ideas need to embody an active spirit able to do things.

Monadism: Sole belief in abstract spiritual monads with varying powers of perception.

Dynamism: Sole belief in the power of external and internal forces in reality.

Phenomenalism: Sole belief in sensual phenomena as representing a world of appearance to be thought over.

Sensationalism: Sole belief in sensual phenomena as the basic reality, with thought a mere addition.] (67, pp. 30-39, précis by RSWB))

3 Fold X 3 Fold Educational Perspective

I. Thinking

A. thinking aspect
Applying mathematical principles to problem solving
B. feeling aspect
Mathematical repetitive exercises or geometrical construction
C. willing aspect
Constructing models or building-math projects

II. Feeling

A. thinking aspect
Study of classics
B. feeling aspect
Writing stories or poems
C. willing aspect
Performing or publishing

III. Willing

A. thinking aspect
Technical drawing
B. feeling aspect
Discussing and evaluatng aesthetics of project
C. willing aspect
Realisation of design in workshop

CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING AND TEACHING

Jean Piaget

Piaget is usually quoted in the context of the early development of education theory and these days it is hard to even imagine the social context of his theories. He was writing in a time when children were regarded as little adults. Children were even dressed as little adults Consequently, a theory which challenged this by saying that children not only learned in different ways but they could not learn some things at the wrong time, was very much flying in the face of practices of the time.

Piaget posited the following necessary stages of development and like Steiner before him, spoke of the dire consequences of ignoring these stages and forcing an early or inappropriate education .

The four stages are:

Sensorimotor stage (Infancy). In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbolic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.

Pre-operational stage (Toddler and Early Childhood). In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversible manner. Egocentric thinking predominates.

Concrete operational stage (Elementary and early adolescence). In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstrated through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.

Formal operational stage (Adolescence and adulthood). In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood. Many pre-school and primary programs are modeled on Piaget's theory, which, as stated previously, provides part of the foundation for constructivist learning. Discovery learning and supporting the developing interests of the child are two primary instructional techniques. It is recommended that parents and teachers challenge the child's abilities, but NOT present material or information that is too far beyond the child's level. It is also recommended that teachers use a wide variety of concrete experiences to help the child learn (e.g., use of manipulatives, working in groups to get experience seeing from another's perspective, field trips, etc).

Piaget's research methods were based primarily on case studies [they were descriptive]. While some of his ideas have been supported through more correlational and experimental methodologies, others have not. For example, Piaget believed that biological development drives the movement from one cognitive stage to the next. Data from cross-sectional studies of children in a variety of western cultures seem to support this assertion for the stages of sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete operations.



BEHAVIORAL VERSUS COGNITIVE APPROACH
http://copland.udel.edu/~jconway/EDST666.htm#cogapp

Prior to 1970 Behavioral Psychology formed the basis of how many teachers behaved in the classroom. Coupled with the traditional body of knowledge that made up a 'good' education this approach made sense. Now a basis in Cognitive Psychology seems to be a better method for preparing students to become lifelong learners. Advances in educational technology have contributed and supported this swing toward the Cognitive approach.
A brief background on each approach might be helpful.

Behavioral Approach
B.F. Skinner is considered the "grandfather of behaviorism". He generated much of the experimental data that is the basis of behavioral learning theory. He and other behavioral theorists were concerned mainly with observable indications of learning and what those observations could imply for teaching. They concentrated on observable 'cause and effect' relationships. Skinner and others viewed the teacher's job as modifying the behavior of students by setting up situations to reinforce students when they exhibit desired responses. Behaviorists viewed learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in the learner. They reasoned that teachers could link together responses involving lower-level skills and create a learning "chain" to teach higher-level skills. The teacher would determine all of the skills needed to lead up to the desired behavior and make sure students learned them all in a step-by-step manner. (Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997, p.59)

Cognitive Approach
Many educational psychologists found the behavioral approach unsatisfying. In the areas of problem solving and learning strategies they became more concerned with what was unobservable - what was going on inside the brain. These theories are based on the work of educational philosopher John Dewey, and educational psychologists Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner among others. They propose that children actively construct knowledge and this construction of knowledge happens in a social context. Vygotsky proposed that all learning takes place in the 'zone of proximal development'. This 'zone' is the difference between what a child can do alone and what he/she can do with assistance. By building on the child's experiences and providing moderately challenging tasks teachers can provide the 'intellectual scaffolding' to help children learn and progress through the different stages of development.

The methods of constructivism emphasize students' ability to solve real-life, practical problems. Students typically work in cooperative groups rather than individually; they tend to focus on projects that require solutions to problems rather than on instructional sequences that require learning of certain content skills. The job of the teacher in constructivist models is to arrange for required resources and act as a guide to students while they set their own goals and 'teach themselves'. (Roblyer, Edwards, and Havriluk, 1997, p. 70

In looking at the role of I.C.T. in a Distributed Learning Environment I find it necessary to firstly gather information and define some of the terms used in language that is more familiar to me while attempting to begin synthesizing the academic studies.

Situated Learning http://tip.psychology.org/lave.html: This translates to learning that is connected to the context of the situation and comes as a result of participating in an activity or culture.Learning is usually unintentional rather than deliberate.......happening "By the way".Novices learn from experts in the context of every day activities.
For example activities that occur on class feild trips and camps
Last year I took my class on a geology excursion conducted by real fossickers.We were faced with a sudden torrential downpour just when the students were striking it lucky.Some wanted to head for home base immediatly while others were happy to tuff it out to collect the goods.This real life experience of battling with the elements, the hardships and frustrations the early gold diggers faced and the patience and perseverance required to succeed was invaluable compared to the "dry"teaching in the confines of a classroom .



Jean Lave

Lave argues that most classroom learning is abstract and out of context, and certainly if one was to merely listen to the cries of children who may say “When will we ever use this in real life?” one may never penetrate to the depths of the human being. One could successfully argue that the child needs to learn the skills of the culture in which they find themselves in order to achieve the benefits of that life or one could argue that higher order skills are learned from lets say, training the mind in skills such as mathematics. Either way it is up to the wisdom of the teacher or parent until the child is able to make these personal choices.

Lev Vygotsky

The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals." (p57).

A second aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development depends upon the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD): a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow "inner speech". Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development” suggests that learning is enhanced by children being engaged in social interaction. This plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. The range of development with peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone. This is certainly born out by personal experience of “Home Schooled Children “ who often have trouble adapting to social situations in a classroom environment.

Constructivist Learning & Teaching http://www.cdli.ca/~elmurphy/emurphy/cle6.html: Building concepts anew. Teachers are often criticised for “reinventing the wheel” but from a teachers perspective it is so important to examine the often distorted basis of a concept or at least an understanding of, the origin of the concept or idea.


David Jonassen
Jonassen stresses the importance of exposing students to a multiplicity of perspectives of the world and while totally agreeing with the sentiment, one would also have to agree that this is probably a major shortcoming in teaching today. How we perceive knowledge and the process of coming to know provides the basis for educational practice. If we believe that learners passively receive information then priority in instruction will be on knowledge transmission. If, on the other hand, we believe that learners actively construct knowledge in their attempts to make sense of their world, then learning will likely emphasize the development of meaning and understanding. Constructivists generally claim that knowledge is not discovered and that the ideas teachers teach do not correspond to an objective reality. http://www.cdli.ca/~elmurphy/emurphy/cle.html

Jerome Bruner

A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e., schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to "go beyond the information given".
As far as instruction is concerned, the instructor should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The instructor and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e., socratic learning). The task of the instructor is to translate information to be learned into a format appropriate to the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects: (1) predisposition towards learning, (2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner, (3) the most effective sequences in which to present material, and (4) the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions, and increasing the manipulation of information.

In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990, 1996) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning as well as the practice of law.

Scope/Application:
Bruner's constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research (especially Piaget ). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983) focuses on language learning in young children.

Distributed Learning environment:
http://techcollab.csumb.edu/techsheet2.1/distributed.html

More than chalk and Talk. "The distributed learning model can be used in combination with traditional classroom-based courses, with traditional distance learning courses, or it can be used to create wholly virtual classrooms." Learning can occur independently of time and place enabling learners to gain more control over how when and where their learning occurs.


Howard Gardner
Multiple Intelligences
Gardners work seems to be heading in the direction of the existence of more “intelligences“with three more under investigation ,namely Spiritual , Existential and Moral . Work by Steiner would suggest that the resulting Twelve Intelligences would be more complete.I suspect that Steiner would also agree with Gardner that the general public is not yet ready to accept such scientifically unsubstantiable intelligences .Steiner made it very clear however that all truths are substantiable by those who are willing to investigate them without prejudice and to test them accordingly.It is heartening to see that Gardner is at least attempting to test the boundaries and challenging people to think about broader ways of understanding the education of children.

Implementation in the classroom

Thomas Armstrong

Armtrong suggests asking the following questions
http://www.thomasarmstrong.com/articles/7_ways.htm
When Planning a Lesson, Ask the Right Questions!
Certain questions help me look at the possibilities for involving as many intelligences as possible:
Linguistic: How can I use the spoken or written word?

Logical-Mathematical: How can I bring in numbers, calculations, logic, classifications, or critical thinking?

Spatial: How can I use visual aids, visualization, color, art, metaphor, or visual organizers?

Musical: How can I bring in music or environmental sounds, or set key points in a rhythm or melody?

Bodily-Kinesthetic: How can I involve the whole body, or hands-on experiences?

Interpersonal: How can I engage students in peer or cross-age sharing, cooperative learning or large-group simulation?

Intrapersonal: How can I evoke personal feelings or memories, or give students choices?

Charts of Dominant Intelligences

The following charts represent a teachers perspective of the Eight Intelligences proposed by Howard Gardner as they relate to his class of 29 students .He found it difficult in most cases to decide on one dominant intelligence. When attempting to make the graph he became aware that each child was capable of operating from several different intelligences. As these children have been educated in a Steiner Primary school he was delighted to observe how the multi-faceted curriculum had resulted in such well balanced individuals able to express their intelligence in many different ways.

















c) Higher Order Learning http://www2.selu.edu/Academics/Education/TEC/think.htm

David Perkins

I found the following guidelines by David Perkins very helpful in looking at how I could encourage higher-order thinking in my classroom.

III. How do I foster higher-order thinking in my classroom?
1. Set up a classroom environment which is conducive to high-level thinking.
A. Multi-level materials
B. Flexible grouping
C. Accept and celebrate diversity
D. Print-rich environment
E. High expectations
F. Teacher as co-learner
G. Nurture risk-taking
2. Engage students in activities which foster high-level thinking.
A. Collaborative group activities in which students can communicate with others in a variety of ways.
B. Problem-solving activities that require more than routine calculations.
C. Open-ended activities with more than one "right" answer.
D. Activities which accommodate multiple intelligences.
E. Activities in which both genders participate freely.
3. Construct questions that call for high-level thinking.
A. Ask yourself, "Do I always know the answer to my questions?"
B. Use a variety of assessment methods that match teaching strategies. For example, use a project for assessment instead of an end-of-unit test.

Action Research http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/drugfree/sa3act.htm

Action research is inquiry or research in the context of focused efforts to improve the quality of an organization and its performance. It typically is designed and conducted by practitioners who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action research can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team approach is called collaborative inquiry.
Action research has the potential to generate genuine and sustained improvements in schools. It gives educators new opportunities to reflect on and assess their teaching; to explore and test new ideas, methods, and materials; to assess how effective the new approaches were; to share feedback with fellow team members; and to make decisions about which new approaches to include in the team's curriculum, instruction, and assessment plans.